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°ª¤åÃÀ´_¿³®É´Á³Ì¨ã¥Nªí©Êªº«Ø¿v®v¬ODonato Bramante¡]1445-1514¡^©MAndrea Palladio¡]1508-1580¡^¡C
The
Renaissance is divided into the Early Renaissance (c. 1400¡V1490) and the High
Renaissance (c. 1490¡V1527). During the Early Renaissance, theories on art were
developed, new advancements in painting and architecture were made, and the
style was defined. The High Renaissance denotes a period that is seen as the
culmination of the Renaissance period, when artists and architects implemented
these ideas and artistic principles in harmonious and beautiful ways.
Renaissance
architecture is characterized by symmetry and proportion, and
is directly influenced by the study of antiquity. While Renaissance
architecture was defined in the Early Renaissance by figures such as Filippo
Brunelleschi (1377¡V1446) and Leon Battista Alberti (1404¡V1472), the architects
most representative of the High Renaissance are Donato Bramante (1444¡V1514) and
Andrea Palladio (1508¡V1580).
A key
figure in Roman architecture during the High Renaissance was Donato Bramante
(1444¡V1514). Bramante was born in Urbino and first came to prominence as
an architect in Milan before traveling to Rome . In
Rome, Bramante was commissioned by Ferdinand and Isabella to design the
Tempietto, a temple that marks what was believed to be the exact spot where
Saint Peter was martyred. The temple is circular, similar to early Christian
martyriums, and much of the design is inspired by the remains of the ancient
Temple Vesta.
The
Tempietto is considered by many scholars to be the premier example of High
Renaissance architecture. With its perfect proportions, harmony of its parts,
and direct references to ancient architecture, the Tempietto embodies the
Renaissance. This structure has been described as Bramante¡¦s ¡§calling card¡¨ to
Pope Julius II, the important Renaissance patron of the arts who would then
employ Bramante in the historic design of the new St. Peter¡¦s Basilica .
Andrea
Palladio (1508¡V1580) was the Chief Architect in the Republic of Venice in
the 16th century. Deeply inspired by Roman and Greek architecture, Palladio is
widely considered one of the most influential individuals in the history of
Western architecture. All of his buildings are located in what was the Venetian
Republic, but his teachings, summarized in the architectural treatise, The Four Books of Architecture,
gained him wide recognition beyond Italy. Palladian Architecture
, named after him, adhered to classical Roman principles that Palladio
rediscovered, applied, and explained in his works. Palladio designed many
palaces, villas, and churches, but his reputation has been founded on his skill
as a designer of villas. Palladian villas are located mainly in the province of
Vicenza.
Palladio
established an influential new building format for the agricultural villas of
the Venetian aristocracy. His designs were based on practicality and employed
fewer reliefs . He consolidated the various standalone
farm outbuildings into a single impressive structure and arranged as a
highly organized whole, dominated by a strong center and symmetrical side
wings, as illustrated at Villa Barbaro. The Palladian
villa configuration often consists of a centralized block raised on an elevated
podium, accessed by grand steps and flanked by lower service wings. This
format, with the quarters of the owner at the elevated center of his own world,
found resonance as a prototype for Italian villas and later for the country
estates of the British nobility. Palladio developed his own more flexible
prototype for the plan of the villas to moderate scale and function.
µÜ©ù¯Ç¦h¡P¹F¡Pªâ©_¡]Leonardo da Vinci¡^³QÅA¬°¬ì¾Ç®a¡A¾ÇªÌ©Mµo©ú®a¡A¦ý¥L§@¬°¤åÃÀ´_¿³®É´Á´X³¡³Ç§@ªºµe®a¦Ó»D¦W¡C
´yz¹Fªâ©_¡]Leonardo
da Vinci¡^ªº§@«~¡A³o¨Ç§@«~®i¥Ü¤F¥L§@¬°ÃÀ³N®aªº³Ì³Ð·s§Þ³N
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¹Fªâ©_§@«~¿W¯Sªº¯S½è¥]¬A¥L¦b¶î®Æ¤W¨Ï¥Îªº³Ð·s§Þ³N¡A¥L¹ï¸Ñå¾Çªº¸Ô²Ó¤F¸Ñ¡A¥L¹ï¤H§Î¦b§Î¶Hºc¦¨¤¤ªº³Ð·s¹B¥Î¥H¤Î¹ïsfumatoªº¹B¥Î¡C
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¹Fªâ©_³Ð§@ªº³ÌµÛ¦W§@«~¤¤¦³¤@±i¦W¬°»X®RÄR²ïªº¤p¨v¹³¡A¥H¤k¤HÁy¤WªºÃø¥H®»ºNªº¯º®e¦Ó»D¦W¡A³o¬O¥Ñ©ó¹Fªâ©_¥©§®¦a¾B»\¤F¼L¨¤©M²´·úªº¨¤³¡¡A±q¦Ó¨Ï¦ÛµMªº¥»½è·L¯ºªºµ{«×µLªk½T©w¡C
¡P
¾¨ºÞ¹Fªâ©_µe§@«Ü¦³¦W¡A¦ý¥L¨Ã¤£¬O¦h²£ªºµe®a¡C¥L¬O¦ì¦h²£ªº»s¹Ïû¡A¦b¤é°O¤¤¥R¥¸µÛ¤p¯ó¹Ï©M¸Ô²Óªº¹Ï¯È¡A°O¿ýµÛ¥L·P¿³½ìªº©Ò¦³¨Æª«¡C
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sfumato¡G¦bøµe¤¤¡AÀ³¥Î¥b³z©úªoº£ªº·L§®¼h¡A¥H¨ÏÃC¦â¡A¦â½Õ©M¹ï¶H¤§¶¡¨S¦³¥i¨£ªº¹L´ç¡C
µÜ©ù¯Ç¦h¡P¹F¡Pªâ©_¡]Leonardo da Vinci¡^¬O¤@¦ì¬ì¾Ç®a¡A¾ÇªÌ©Mµo©ú®a¡A³Æ¨üÆgÅA¡A¦ý¥L¥H¤åÃÀ´_¿³®É´Á´X³¡³Ç§@ªºµe®a¦Ó»D¦W¡C¥Ñ©ó¦UºØì¦]¡A¥Lªºµe§@¨ã¦³¶}³Ð©Ê¡A¥Lªº§@«~¨ü¨ì¾Ç¥Íªº¼Ò¥é¡A¨Ã±o¨ì¤FŲ½à®a©Mµû½×®aªº¼sªx°Q½×¡C
¹Fªâ©_§@«~¿W¯Sªº¯S½è¥]¬A¥L¦b¶î®Æ¤W¨Ï¥Îªº³Ð·s§Þ³N¡A¥L¹ï¸Ñå¾Çªº¸Ô²Óª¾ÃÑ¡A¥L¦b¨ã¶Hºc¹Ï¤¤¨Ï¥Î¤H§Î¥H¤Î¹ïsfumatoªº¨Ï¥Î¡C©Ò¦³³o¨Ç¯S½è³£¥X²{¦b¥L³ÌµÛ¦Wªº§@«~¡m»X®RÄR²ï¡n¡A¡m³Ì«áªº±ßÀ\¡n©M¡m³B¤kªº©¥¥Û¡n¤¤¡C
Da
Vinci¡¦s most celebrated painting of the 1490s is The Last Supper, which was painted for
the refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria della Grazie in Milan. The painting depicts the last meal shared
by Jesus and the 12 Apostles where he announces that one of the
them will betray him. When finished, the painting was acclaimed as a
masterpiece of design. This work demonstrates something that da Vinci did very
well: taking a very traditional subject matter, such as the Last Supper, and
completely re-inventing it.
Prior to
this moment in art history, every representation of the Last Supper followed
the same visual tradition: Jesus and the Apostles seated at a table. Judas is
placed on the opposite side of the table of everyone else and is effortlessly
identified by the viewer . When da Vinci painted The
Last Supper he placed Judas on the same side of the
table as Christ and the Apostles, who are shown reacting to Jesus as he announces
that one of them will betray him. They are depicted as alarmed, upset, and
trying to determine who will commit the act. The viewer also has to determine
which figure is Judas, who will betray Christ. By depicting the scene in this
manner, da Vinci has infused psychology into the work.
Unfortunately,
this masterpiece of the Renaissance began to deteriorate immediately after da
Vinci finished painting, due largely to the painting technique that he had
chosen. Instead of using the technique of fresco , da
Vinci had used tempera over a ground that was mainly gesso in an attempt to
bring the subtle effects of oil paint to fresco. His new technique was not successful, and resulted in a surface that was subject to
mold and flaking.
Among the
works created by da Vinci in the 16th century is the small portrait known as
the Mona Lisa, or La Gioconda, ¡§the laughing
one.¡¨ In the present era it is arguably the most famous painting in the world.
Its fame rests, in particular, on the elusive smile on the woman¡¦s face¡Xits
mysterious quality brought about perhaps by the fact that the artist has subtly
shadowed the corners of the mouth and eyes so that the exact nature of the
smile cannot be determined.
The
shadowy quality for which the work is renowned came to be called sfumato, the
application of subtle layers of translucent paint so that there is no visible
transition between colors, tones , and often objects.
Other characteristics found in this work are the unadorned dress, in which the
eyes and hands have no competition from other details; the dramatic landscape
background, in which the world seems to be in a state of flux; the subdued
coloring; and the extremely smooth nature of the painterly technique, employing
oils, but applied much like tempera and blended on the surface so that the
brushstrokes are indistinguishable. And again, da Vinci is innovating upon a
type of painting here. Portraits were very common in the Renaissance.
However, portraits of women were always in profile, which was seen as
proper and modest. Here, da Vinci present a portrait of a woman who not only
faces the viewer but follows them with her eyes.
In the
painting Virgin and Child
with St. Anne, da Vinci¡¦s composition again picks up the theme of
figures in a landscape. What makes this painting unusual is that there are two
obliquely set figures superimposed. Mary is seated on the knee of her mother,
St. Anne. She leans forward to restrain the Christ Child as he plays roughly
with a lamb, the sign of his own impending sacrifice .
This painting influenced many contemporaries, including Michelangelo, Raphael,
and Andrea del Sarto. The trends in its composition
were adopted in particular by the Venetian painters Tintoretto and Veronese.
Raphael
was an Italian Renaissance painter and architect whose work is admired for its
clarity of form and ease of composition.
Discuss Raphael
influences and artistic achievements
¡P
Together with Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael
forms the traditional trinity of great masters of the High Renaissance
. He was enormously productive, running an unusually large workshop, and
despite his death at 30, he had a large body of work.
¡P
Some of Raphael¡¦s most striking artistic influences come from
the paintings of Leonardo da Vinci; because of this inspiration, Raphael gave
his figures more dynamic and complex positions in his earlier compositions .
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©Ô´´º¸¡]Raphael¡^ªº¡§´µ©Z¯÷¡]Stanze¡^¡¨³Ç§@¬O«D±`Ãe¤j¦Ó´_Âøªº§@«~¡A¤w³Qµø¬°°ª¤åÃÀ´_¿³®É´Áªº¦Ü°ªµL¤W§@«~¡C¥L̹ï©Òªí¥Üªº§Î¦¡¶i¦æ¤F°ª«×²z·Q¤Æªº´yz¡A¾¨ºÞ¦b¹Ï¯È¤¤«D±`¥J²Ó¦aºc«ä¤Fºc¹Ï¡A¦ý¥¦Ì«o¹F¨ì¤Fsprezzaturaªº¥Øªº¡A§YÀu¶®¦a°õ¦æ¥ô°ÈªºÃÀ³N¡A¬Ý¤W¥h²@¤£¶O¤O¡C
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sprezzatura¡GÀu¶®¦a°õ¦æ¤@¶µÁ}¹d¥ô°ÈªºÃÀ³N¡A¥H¦Ü©ó¬Ý¤W¥h²@¤£¶O¤O¡C
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²D´Y¡G¦³«Î³»ªº¶}©ñ¦¡µe´Y¡C
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Giorgione¬O²Ä¤@Ó¦bµe¥¬¤Wøµeªoµeªº¤H¡C¥H«e¡A¨Ï¥Îªoªº¤H¬O¦b±ªO¤Wøµe¡A¦Ó¤£¬O¦bµe¥¬¤Wøµe¡C¥Lªº§@«~¨Ã¨S¦³¦h¤Ö©³¯¾¡A³oªí©ú¥L¨S¦³¿í¦u¦òùÛÂĪº¡§ª[¸q¡¨¡A¦Ó¥LªºÃD§÷¤´µMÃø¥H®»ºN©M¯«¯µ¡C®i¥Ü©Ò¦³³o¤TÓ¤¸¯Àªº¥Lªº§@«~¤§¤@¬O¡m¼É·«B¡n¡]¬ù1505-1510¦~¡^¡C³o´T§@«~¬O¥¬±ªoµe¡AX®g½uÅã¥Üøµe¤¤´X¥G¨S¦³¡A¥DÃD¤´µM¬OÃÀ³N¥v¤Wª§Ä³³Ì¤jªº°ÝÃD¤§¤@¡C
´£»ô¨È¿Õ¡P³¤Á§Q¡]Tiziano Vecelli¡^©Î´£»¡]1490¡V1576¡^¡A¥i¥H»¡¬O16¥@¬ö«Â¥§´µ¾Ç®Õ¤¤³Ì«nªº¦¨û¡A¤]¬O¥\¯à³ÌÂ×´Iªº¾Ç®Õ¤§¤@¡C¥L¦P¼Ë¾Õªø©óµe¹³¡A·´ºI´º¥H¤Î¯«¸Ü©M©v±ÐÃD§÷¡C¥LªºÃ¸µe¤èªk¡A¯S§O¬O¦b¦â±mªºÀ³¥Î©M¨Ï¥Î¤¤¡A¤£¶È·|¹ï·N¤j§Q¤åÃÀ´_¿³®É´Áªºµe®a²£¥Í²`»·ªº¼vÅT¡A¦Ó¥B¹ï«á¥Nªº¦è¤èÃÀ³N¤]±N²£¥Í²`»·ªº¼vÅT¡C¦bTitianªº¤@¥Í¤¤¡A¥LªºÃÀ³N·®æµo¥Í¤F½¤ÑÂЦaªºÅܤơA¦ý¥L¹ï¦â±m©l²×«O«ùµÛ¿@«pªº¿³½ì¡C¾¨ºÞ¥L¦¨¼ôªº§@«~¥i¯à¨S¦³¦´Á§@«~ªº¥Í°Ê¡A©ú«Gªº¦â±m¡A¦ý¨äÃP´²ªºµ§Ä²©M¦h¦â½Õ»sªº·L§®¤§³B©|µL¥ý¨Ò¡C
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«Où¡P³Ã¹¤º¶ë¡]Paolo Veronese¡A1528¡V1588¦~¡^¬O«Â¥§´µ¥Dnªº¤åÃÀ´_¿³®É´Áµe®a¤§¤@¡A¥H¡m¥d¯Ç±B§¡n©M¡m§Qºû¬G©~¡nµ¥Ã¸µe¦Ó»D¦W¡C³Ã¹¤º¶ë¡]Veronese¡^³QÅA¬°¦Ü°ªµL¤Wªº½Õ¦â®v¡A¥L¥H¾Àµe©Mªoµe¤¤ªº¤Ûı¸Ë¹¢¡C¥L³ÌµÛ¦Wªº§@«~¬Oºë½oªº±Ô¨Æ¶g´Á¡A¥HÀ¸¼@©Ê©M¦h±mªº·®æ°õ¦æ¡A¥Rº¡¶¯°¶ªº«Ø¿vÀô¹Ò©M°{°{µo¥úªº§§ÄR´º¦â¡C
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Canaªº±B§´X¥GµLªkªí¹F±¡·P¡G¬Û¤Ï¡A¥¦»¡©ú¤F¥DÅéªu¥Dn¤ô¥¶bºë¤ß²Õ¦Xªº¹B°Ê¡C³Ì«nªº¬O¡A¥¦»P¥ú©MÃC¦âªº¥Õ¿K¦³Ãö¡C§Y¨ÏVeronese¹ï¦â±mªº¨Ï¥ÎÀò±o¤F§ó°ªªº±j«×©M«G«×¡A¥L¹ï±Ô¨Æ¡A¤HÃþ±¡·P¥H¤Î¤Hª«¤§¶¡§ó·L§®©M¦³·N¸qªºª«²z¬Û¤¬§@¥ÎªºÃöª`¤]ÅܱoÅã¦Ó©ö¨£¡C
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´yz·®æ¥D¸qªº·®æ¡A¥¦»P¤åÃÀ´_¿³ªº¤£¦P¤§³B¥H¤Î¥X²{¥¦ªºì¦]¡C
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¶®¦U¥¬¡P¹F¡P½´¦«º¸²ö¡]Jacopo da Pontormo¡A1494-1557¦~¡^¥Nªí¤F±q¤åÃÀ´_¿³®É´Á¨ìÁB¹¢¥D¸q·®æªºÂàÅÜ¡C¥H¥Lªº¡m±q¤Q¦r¬[¤W¨I¿n¡n¬°¨Ò¡A³o¬O¤@Ó¬°¦òùÛÂĸt¶O§Q¦è¶ð±Ð°óªº¤p±Ð°óµeªº²½¾Âµe¡Cº¿ÄR©MC¿qªº§Î¹³¦ü¥Gª½±µ¤Þ¥Î¤F¦Ì¶}®Ô°òùªº¸t¥À¼¦¤l¹Ï¡C¾¨ºÞ³o¶µ¤u§@³QºÙ¬°¡§¨I¿n¡¨¡A¨S¦³¤Q¦r¬[¡C¾ÇªÌ̤]±N¦¹§@«~ºÙ¬°¡§¸®Â§¡¨¡A¦ý¨S¦³¹Ó¸®¡C¹ï¥DÃD¯Ê¥F²M´·©Ê¬O·®æ¥D¸qøµeªº¼Ð»x¡C¦¹¥~¡A¸Ó³]¸m¬O¤£¦X²zªº¡A´X¥G´N¦n¹³¤£¦b³oÓ¥@¬É¤¤¤@¼Ë¡A¨Ã¥BÃC¦â»·«D¦ÛµM¥D¸q¡C³o¥ó§@«~¤£¥i¯à¬O¤åÃÀ´_¿³®É´ÁÃÀ³N®a³Ð§@ªº¡C·®æ¥D¸q¹B°Ê±j½Õ¤£¦Pªº¥Ø¼Ð¡A½´¦«º¸²ö¡]Pontormo¡^ªº³o¥óÃÀ³N«~®i¥Ü¤F³oºØ·s¿o¦Ó¤S¤£¦Pªº·®æ¡C
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·®æ¥D¸qøµeªº²Ä¤G¶¥¬qºÙ¬°¡§ Maniera Greca¡¨¡A»P¦´Áªº¡§¤Ï¥j¨å¡¨¶¥¬q¦³©Ò¤£¦P¡CÁ|¤î°ª©|ªº¤H±j½Õª¾ÃѤWªº¦Ût©MÃÀ³N§Þ¥©¡A³o¨Ç¯S¼x¾ÉP«á¨Óªº§åµû®a«ü³d¥Ḻq¨Æ¤£¦ÛµM¥B¨ü¼vÅTªº¡§¤è¦¡¡¨¡C
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ÁB¹¢¥D¸q¬O±q·N¤j§Q°ª¯Å¤åÃÀ´_¿³«á´Á¶}©l¥X²{ªº¼Ú¬wÃÀ³N®É´Á¡C¥¦©l©ó1520¦~¥ª¥k¡A¤@ª½«ùÄò¨ì·N¤j§Qªº1580¦~¥ª¥k¡A¨º®ÉÔ¶}©l§ó«C·ý¤Ú¬¥§J·®æ¡C±q·®æ¤WÁ¿¡A·®æ¥D¸qøµe²[»\¤F¨ü»P¹Fªâ©_¡A©Ô´´º¸©M¦´Á¦Ì¶}®Ô°òùµ¥ÃÀ³N®a¬ÛÃöªº©M¿Ó²z·Q©M¤ºÀĦ۵M¥D¸q¼vÅT¨Ã§@¥X¤ÏÀ³ªº¦UºØ¤èªk¡CÁB¹¢¥D¸q¥H¨äºë¥©ªº´¼¤O¥H¤Î¤H¬°ªº¡]¬Û¹ï©ó¦ÛµM¥D¸qªº¡^¯À½è¦ÓµÛºÙ¡C¾ÇªÌ̤§¶¡¦s¦bµÛÃö©óÁB¹¢¥D¸q¬O¥¦¦Û¤vªº¿W¥ßÃÀ³N¹B°Ê¡AÁÙ¬OÀ³¸Ó±N¨äµø¬°°ª¤åÃÀ´_¿³ªº¤@³¡¤Àªºª§½×¡C
ÁB¹¢¥D¸q¦b¦òùÛÂÄ©Mù°¨³£¦³µo®i¡C¦òùÛÂĪº¦´Á·«Uµe®a¡A¤×¨ä¬OAndrea del Sartoªº¾Ç¥Í¡A¯S§O¬OJacopo da Pontormo©MRosso Fiorentino¡A¥H¨Ï¥Î²Óªøªº§Î¦¡¡A¤£Ã©wªº«º¶Õ¡A¶òÁYªºµø¨¤¡A¤£¦X²zªºÀô¹Ò©M»R¥x·Ó©ú¦ÓµÛºÙ¡CParmigianino¡]Correggioªº¾Ç¥Í¡^©MGiulio Romano¡]Raphaelªºº®u§U¤â¡^¦bù°¨´ÂµÛ·®æ¬Û¦üªº¬ü¾Ç¤è¦Vµo®i¡C³o¨ÇÃÀ³N®a¦b°ª¤åÃÀ´_¿³®É´Áªº¼vÅT¤U¤w¸g¦¨¼ô¡A¨ä·®æ³Q´yz¬°¤@ºØ¤ÏÀ³©Î¸Ø±iªº©µ¦ù¡C
´«¥y¸Ü»¡¡A¤£¬Oª½±µ¬ã¨s¦ÛµM¡A¦Ó¬O¦~»´ªºÃÀ³N®a¶}©l¬ã¨s¹L¥hªº§Æþ¤ÆÀJ¶ì©Møµe¡C¦]¦¹¡A³oºØ·®æ³q±`³Q»{¬°¬O¡§¤Ï¥j¨åªº¡¨¡A¦ý¦b·í®É«o³Q»{¬°¬O¦Û°ª¤åÃÀ´_¿³®É´Áªº¦ÛµMµo®i¡CÁB¹¢¥D¸qªº³Ì¦¹êÅ綥¬q¡A¥H¨ä¡§¤Ï¥j¨å¡¨§Î¦¡¦Ó»D¦W¡A¤@ª½«ùÄò¨ì¤j¬ù1540©Î1550¦~¡C³o¤@®É´Á³Q´yz¬°¹ïAndrea del Sarto¡AMichelangelo©MRaphaelªºÃÀ³Nªº¦ÛµM©µ¦ù¡C³o¨ÇÃÀ³N®aªº¸g¨å¦¨´N¦³©Ò¤U°¡C
¦b¹L¥hªº¤ÀªR¤¤¡A¤w¸gµù·N¨ì¡AÁB¹¢¥D¸q¬O¦b16¥@¬öªì´Á»P¨ä¥L³\¦hªÀ·|¡A¬ì¾Ç¡A©v±Ð©M¬Fªv¹B°Ê¤@°_¥X²{ªº¡A¨Ò¦pô¥Õ¥§¼Ò«¬¡Aù°¨ªº¸t³U¥H¤Î·s±Ð§ï²¹ïµS¤Ó¤Hªº¬D¾Ô¶V¨Ó¶V¤j¡C¤Ñ¥D±Ð·|ªº¤O¶q¡C¦]¦¹¡A¼Ë¦¡ªº©Ôªø§Î¦¡©MÅܧΧΦ¡´¿¸g³Q¸ÑÄÀ¬°¹ï°ª¤åÃÀ´_¿³®É´ÁÃÀ³N¤¤´¶¹M¦s¦bªº²z·Q¤Æºc¹Ïªº¤ÏÀ³¡C
This
explanation for the radical stylistic shift in 1520 has fallen out of scholarly
favor, though the early Mannerists are still set in
stark contrast to High Renaissance conventions; the immediacy and balance
achieved by Raphael¡¦s School of Athens no longer seemed interesting to young
artists. Indeed, Michelangelo himself displayed tendencies towards Mannerism,
notably in his vestibule to the Laurentian Library, in the figures on his
Medici tombs, and above all the Sistine Chapel .
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